Neurons and Exercise

Neurons and Exercise

Wednesday, March 24, 2021

Safety of Fiji Water

 

How Safe is Bottled Fiji Water

Dennis N. Crouse

March 15, 2021 updated in January 2025

 

Fiji water is sold in recyclable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles1. Fiji water is a unique bottled water because the bottle is made of 100% PET that is more economic to recycle than bottles made of mixed plastics1. Both glass and PET bottles were used to store water from the same spring and in both cases no endocrine disrupters were released into the water2,3. This suggests that known endocrine disruptors, such as di-2-ethyhexyl phthalate (DEP)4, optionally added to some PET as a plasticizer, may be the cause of endocrine disruption seen with water stored in some non-Fiji PET bottles2. Fiji water has been tested and found to contain no detectable DEP5. Also, it is claimed the PET Fiji uses, does not contain phthalate plasticizers1.

Fiji water is also a unique bottled water because of its high concentration of orthosilicic acid (OSA) which is a water-soluble form of silica. OSA exists as single molecules [i.e., Si(OH)4] at a concentration of 124-149ppm6. Drinking water containing less than 160ppm of OSA (equivalent to 100ppm of dissolved silica) is generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. FDA7.

In addition to OSA, Fiji water also contains bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, magnesium, sodium, and sulfate, all of which are considered harmless5. In addition, Fiji water contains the following trace metals including arsenic (1.2ppb), and fluoride (0.24ppm)5,8 that are well below the maximum contaminant levels [MCL or SMCL set by the U.S. EPA]. Also, Fiji water was filtered through a 0.45micron filter and then the filter was examined using a 45x power microscope to reveal 12 particles of unknown composition/liter9.

·       Aluminum: 0 ppb10 (levels of aluminum over 100ppb have been linked to Alzheimer’s)10

·       Antimony: 0 ppb5 (6 ppb MCL)Note 1

·       Arsenic: 0.59ppb14 to 1.2ppb5 (10ppb MCL)

·       Fluoride: 0.24ppm5,8 (2.0ppm SMCL)

·       Lead: 0 ppb5 (0ppb MCL)

·       Mercury: 0 ppb5 (2ppb MCL)

·       Particles: 12/liter9 where usually only 1 in 3000 is a micro- or nanoplastic particleNote 2,3

Therefore, Fiji water is safe to drink. 

 Note 1: An insignificant amount antimony is leached out of PET into bottled water after 3 months of storage at 22oC (71.6oF)11. However, storage of drinking water in PET containers at greater than 70oC (the glass transition temperature of PET) has been shown to add antimony to the stored water11.

Note 2: Fiji water is “micron-filtered” prior to bottling in order to remove particles5. A study that found 12 particles larger than 0.45 microns per liter of Fiji water, used a microscope that could not identify the composition of the particles9. When looking at small particles with just a microscope it is impossible to discern their composition12.   People who use equipment that can discern composition of particles (e.g., Raman spectrometer) have not examined the particles in Fiji water. However, they have found that only 1 particle in 3000 particles in river water is microplastic12. The toxicology of microplastic particles is currently unknown but in spite of this, plastic microbeads were used for a number of years in some toothpastes and cosmetics. Because microbeads may be mistaken as food by fish, the Microbead Free Waters Act of 2015 by the U.S. FDA outlaws the manufacture, delivery, and sale of any rinse-off products (e.g., toothpastes, cosmetics, and over the counter drugs) containing microbeads smaller than 5 millimeters13.

Note 3: Research in 2024 on humans by analysis of their olfactory lobes indicates that inhalation and not ingestion of micro and nanoplastics in the air is the major pathway for micro and nanoplastics to enter the brain15 The inhalation route of entry does not involve crossing the blood-brain barrier. The amount of micro and nanoplastic in the frontal cortex of human brains were as high as 0.48% by weight in 2016 and 0.88% in 202416. This 2-fold rise is not surprising when compared to rising nano and microplastics in the atmosphere and with a similar 2-fold rise of microplastic concentrations observed in Greenland Sea water during the time period 2005 to 201417,18.  

References

1. Lynch, I., et al.; Fiji water A sustainability report; University of Vermont (2010)

2. Wagner, M., and Oehlmann, J.; Endocrine disruptors in bottled mineral water: total estrogenic burden and migration from plastic bottles; Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.; 16:278-86 (2009)

 3. Chung, B.Y., et al.; Uterotropic and Hershberger assays for endocrine disruption properties of plastic food contact materials polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET); J. Toxicol. Envrion. Health, Part A; 76(10):624-34 (2013)

4. Latini, G., et al.; Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and endocrine disruption: a review; Curr. Drug Targets Immune Endocr. Metabol. Disord.; Mar.; 4(1):37-40 (2004)

5. Fiji Water; Bottled water quality report; January (2017)

6. Crouse, D.N.; Silica water the secret of healthy blue zone longevity in the aluminum age, Etiological Publishing (2018)

7. Select committee on GRAS substances – SCOGS-61, NTIS Pb 301-402/AS (1979)

8. Delaney, J. as Client; Tweed Laboratory Centre; NSW Australia; Laboratory report on Fiji water (2019)

9. Barrows, A.P.W., Anthropogenic microparticle contamination in bottled water for human consumption; (2018)

10. Crouse, D.N.; Prevent Alzheimer’s, autism, and stroke with 7 supplements, 7 lifestyle choices, and a dissolved mineral; Etiological Publishing (2016)

11. Westerhoff, P., et al.; Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water; Water Res.; Feb.; 42(3):551-6 (2018)

12. Ivleva, N.; Technical University Munich; How dangerous is microplastic?  https://phys.org/news/2019-01-dangerous-microplastic.html

13. The microbead-free waters act: FAQs; U.S. FDA (2020)

14. Leavy-Roach, S., et al.; Heavy metals in bottled natural spring water; J. Environ. Health; June; 73(10):8-13 (2011)

15. Amato-Lourenco, L.F., et al.; Microplastics in the olfactory bulb of the human brain; Environ. Health; JAMA Open; 7(9):e2440018 (2024)

16. Campen, M., et al.; Bioaccumulation of microplastics in decedent human brains assessed by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4873-0454 (2024)

17. Zhang, Y., et al.; Atmospheric microplastics: A review on current status and perspectives; Earth-Sci. Rev.; 203:103118 (2020)

18. Amelineau, F.;  Microplastic pollution in the Greenland sea: background levels and selective contamination of planktivorous diving seabirds; Environ. Pollut. Dec.; 219:1131-39 (2016)